The role teachers' expectations and value assessments of video games play in their adopting and integrating them into their classrooms

Video games have become an essential part of the way people play and learn. While an increasing number of people are using games to learn in informal environments, their acceptance in the classroom as an instructional activity has been mixed. Successes in informal learning have caused supporters to falsely believe that implementing them into the classroom would be a relatively easy transition and have the potential to revolutionise the entire educational system. In spite of all the hype, many are puzzled as to why more teachers have not yet incorporated them into their teaching. The literature is littered with reports that point to a variety of reasons. One of the reasons, we believe, is that very little has been done to convince teachers that the effort to change their curriculum to integrate video games and other forms of technology is worthy of the effort. Not until policy makers realise the importance of professional British Journal of Educational Technology (2009) doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01007.x © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. development and training as an important use of funds will positive changes in thinking and perceptions come about, which will allow these various forms of technology to reach their potential. The authors have hypothesised that the major impediments to useful technology integration include the general lack of institutional infrastructure, poor teacher training, and overly-complicated technologies. Overcoming these obstacles requires both a top-down and a bottom-up approach. This paper presents the results of a pilot study with a group of preservice teachers to determine whether our hypotheses regarding potential negativity surrounding video games was valid and whether a wider scale study is warranted. The results of this study are discussed along with suggestions for further research and potential changes in teacher training programmes. Introduction Over the past 40 years, video games have become an increasingly popular way to play and learn. Those who play regularly often note that the major attraction is their ability to become quickly engaged and immersed in gameplay (Lenhart & Kayne, 2008). Many have taken notice of video games’ apparent effectiveness in teaching social interaction and critical thinking in informal learning environments. Beliefs about the effectiveness of video games in informal learning situations have been hyped to the extent that they are often described as the ‘holy grail’ that will revolutionise our entire educational system (Gee, 2003; Kirkley & Kirkley, 2004; Prensky, 2001; Sawyer, 2002). In spite of all the hype and promotion, many educators express puzzlement and disappointment that only a modest number of teachers have incorporated video games into their teaching (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2004; Pivec & Pivec, 2008). These results seem to mirror those reported on a general lack of successful integration on the part of teachers and educators of new technologies and media in general. The reasons reported in that research point to a varied and complex issue that involves dispelling preconceived notions, prejudices, and concerns (Kati, 2008; Kim & Baylor, 2008). It is our position that very little has been done to date to overcome these objections. We agree with Magliaro and Ezeife (2007) who posited that teachers can and do greatly influence the successes or failures of classroom interventions. Expenditures on media and technology alone do not guarantee their successful or productive use in the classroom. Policy makers need to realise that professional development and training is the most significant use of funds that will positively affect teaching styles and that will allow technology to reach its potential to change education. But as Cuban, Kirkpatrick and Peck (2001) noted, the practices of policy makers and administrators to increase the effective use of technologies in the classroom more often than not conflict with implementation. In their qualitative study of two Silicon Valley high schools, the authors found that despite ready access to computer technologies, 2 British Journal of Educational Technology © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. only a handful of teachers actually changed their teaching practices (ie, moved from teacher-centered to student-centered pedagogies). Furthermore, the authors identified several barriers to technological innovation in the classroom, including most notably: a lack of preparation time, poor technical support, outdated technologies, and the inability to sustain interest in the particular lessons and a lack of opportunities for collaboration due to the rigid structure and short time periods allocated to instruction. The authors concluded by suggesting that the path for integrating technology would eventually flourish, but that it initially would be riddled with problems caused by impediments placed upon its success by a lack of institutional infrastructure, poor training, and overly-complicated technologies. We agree with those who suggest that any proposed classroom intervention correlates directly to the expectations and perceived value/benefit on the part of the integrating teachers, who largely control what and how their students learn (Hanusheck, Kain & Rivkin, 1998). Faced with these significant obstacles, it should not be surprising that video games, like other technologies, have been less than successful in transforming the classroom. We further suggest that overcoming these obstacles requires both a top-down and a bottom-up approach. Policy makers carry the burden of correcting the infrastructural issues both for practical reasons as well as for creating optimism on the part of teachers to believe that their administrators actually support their decisions. On the other hand, anyone associated with educational systems for any length of time will agree that a top-down only approach is destined for failure. The successful adoption of any new classroom intervention is based, in larger part, on teachers’ investing in the belief that the experience is worth the effort. If a teacher sees little or no value in an intervention, or is unfamiliar with its use, then the chances that it will be properly implemented are minimised. In other words, a teacher’s adoption of any instructional strategy is directly correlated with his or her views, ideas, and expectations about what is possible, feasible, and useful. In their studies into the game playing habits of various college students, Shaffer, Squire and Gee (2005) alluded to the fact that of those that they interviewed, future teachers indicated that they did not play video games as often as those enrolled in other majors. Our review of these comments generated several additional research questions that we believe deserve further investigation. We began to hypothesise that if it were true that teachers, as a group, do not in fact play video games on a regular basis, it should not be surprising that they would have difficulty integrating games into their curriculum. They would not have sufficient basis to integrate the rules of gameplay with their instructional strategies, nor would they be able to make proper assessments as to which games might be the most effective. We understand that one does not have to actually like something or be good at something to appreciate its value. For example, one does not necessarily have to be a fan of rap music or have a knack for performing it to understand that it could be a useful teaching tool. But, on the other hand, we wondered whether the attitudes towards video games on the part of teachers were not merely neutral, but in fact actually negative, which would further undermine any attempts at successfully introducing games into their classrooms. Expectancy-value 3 © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. This paper presents the results of a pilot study we conducted that utilised a group of preservice teachers to determine whether our hypothesis regarding potential negativity surrounding video games was valid and whether a wider scale study is warranted. In this examination, we utilised a preference survey to ask participants to reveal their impressions and expectancies about video games in general, their playing habits, and their personal assessments as to the potential role games might play in their future teaching strategies. We believe that the results we found are useful in determining ramifications for some potential changes in teacher preparation and professional development programmes. They provide more background on the kinds of learning that can take place, as described by Prensky (2001), Gee (2003) and others, they consider how to evaluate supposed educational games that exist in the market, and they suggest successful integration strategies. Just as no one can assume that digital kids already have expertise in participatory learning simply because they are exposed to these experiences in their informal, outside of school activities, those responsible for teacher training cannot assume that just because up-and-coming teachers have been brought up in the digital age, they are automatically familiar with, disposed to using, and have positive ideas about how games can be integrated into their curriculum. As a case in point, we found that there exists a significant disconnect between teachers and their students regarding the value of gameplay, and whether one can efficiently and effectively learn from games. In this study, we also attempted to determine if there might be an interaction effect based on the type of console being used. We wanted to confirm Pearson and Bailey’s (2008) assertions that the Nintendo Wii (Nintendo Company, Ltd. 11-1 KamitobaHokodate-cho, Minami-ku, Kyoto 601-8501, Japan) consoles would not only promote improvements in physical movement, but also assist with social and self-esteem issues. While Pearson and Bailey were discussing the use of the Nintendo Wii with disabled students, we wanted to find out if these benefits translated to assisting reluctant teachers in accepting video games as potential learning tools for the classroom. We compared the gameplay mechanics and preferences of a traditional game console (the Microsoft XBox 360: Microsoft Corporation One Microsoft Way Redmond, WA 98052-7329 USA) with the Nintendo Wii console, which uses more natural movements as well as simplified graphics. Expectancy-value theory We found in the literature a relevant motivational theory that deals with behavioral selection based on the principles of expectancy and perceived value. Founded by Martin Fishbein in the late 1960s and 1970s (Fishbein, 1967, 1968; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), expectancy-value theory posits that behavior is a function of the expectancies one has and the value of the goal that one is working towards. Expectancy-value theory also holds that behaviors are in response to one’s beliefs and values and are undertaken to achieve some desired end. Behaviors, intentions and/or attitudes are seen as a function of a belief that an object potentially possesses a particular attribute or that a certain behavior will have a particular consequence or outcome. This function also contains an 4 British Journal of Educational Technology © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. assessment as to the degree that the attribute or behavior will positively or negatively affect that anticipated outcome (Palmgreen, 1984). Although expectancy-value theory can explain much with regards to media use and gratification, we realise that behavioral motives are also guided by social circumstances. Views on the part of one’s peers as to the usefulness and effectiveness of an intervention weigh heavily on that individual’s own views and willingness to risk utilizing it in the classroom. If video games, for example, are not generally accepted as legitimate instructional tools by teachers as a group, the chances of their failing as an intervention will increase. This type of group social behavior is often referred to as ‘collective consciousness’. Collective consciousness refers to the shared beliefs and moral attitudes that operate as a unifying force within society that directly influence an individual’s ideals, beliefs, and behaviors (Jary & Jary, 1991). While these shared beliefs certainly influence the behaviors of peer groups (e.g., teacher to teacher) there has also been substantive research into the impact of the phenomenon with regard to the influence teachers have on their students. In his pioneering work in the relationship between teaching and transpersonal psychology, Christopher Bache (2008) recently explored the dynamics of collective consciousness in the classroom. His research resulted in a suggestion that a teacher is capable of exuding unintentional, subtle influences (both positive and negative) on his or her students. If the teacher believes that a specific intervention is beneficial, it stands a better chance of being successful. Bache proposed that such beliefs trigger what he refers to as ‘learning fields’ that can activate new insights and become a catalyst for change. We suggest that the converse is also true. Negative attributions radiate negative influences and can adversely affect the outcome of utilizing oftentimes contentious educational tools like video games. If these negative attributions do exist, the implications for teacher-training programmes are clear. For games to reach their potential, the collective consciousness of teachers regarding video games needs to be transformed. At the very minimum, teachers and administrators residing within an organisation need to hold similar attitudes towards games. Currently, these attitudes appear to be less than positive, especially in light of the lack of empirical research into the educational value of so-called serious or educational games (Gunter, Kenny & Vick, 2008; Kenny & Gunter, 2008) and the impediments being thrown in their way (Rice, 2006). The tenets of expectancy-value theory bring to mind McLuhan’s tetrad—four principles that formulate an alternate way to view the effect that technology has on society. There exist many attempts in the literature to evaluate technology and its impact on curriculum (Clark, 1983, 1994; Jonassen, Campbell & Davidson, 1994; Kozma, 1983, 1991, 1994). Instead of looking to technology as having a cause and effect consequence, McLuhan’s model organises around a view that suggests that any technology worth its while for the long term will participate in an ebb and flow. This ebb and flow will endure as long as it is positively affected by its own novelty as well as those attributes introduced by a newer technology that succeeds it (Hempell, 2006). The corollary is Expectancy-value 5 © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. that when making a judgment about the value of a technology (game), a society (people) will tend to evaluate it in terms of the following questions: • What new element of value does it introduce? • What does it make obsolete? • What does it transform into when it itself is succeeded by an even newer technology? • What happens if we over depend on it? In other words, it is a safe bet that nonplaying teachers could be consciously or subconsciously looking at video games in light of these four evaluative criteria. A negative answer to any one of these questions could invalidate the technology in their eyes. If the collective consciousness of a teacher group is such that games are not viewed as being of value because they are not well understood, that they potentially make the teacher or his or her traditional teaching methods obsolete, that they are perceived as tenuous because they will only be succeeded by some newer fad, or that over-dependence on them has a potentially deleterious effect on those who play too often, video games stand little chance of being generally adopted as a valid educational intervention by these individuals. The tenets of the ARCS Motivational Model (attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction) (Keller & Kopp, 1987) serve as good a foundation as any for identifying possible bases for motivating teachers to more consistently and effectively integrate games into their curriculum. The results of various media reports seem to indicate that video games have gotten the attention of teachers. But, as Keller and Kopp (1987) and others (Fortugno & Zimmerman, 2005) indicate, gaining attention is an insufficient precondition. In order to become fully motivated, teachers need to discover the relevance of games to their specific content areas as well as learn how to create the right kinds of challenges and opportunities for success within the confines and time limits imposed in formal classroom structures. Even once relevance is established, game development and selection has to undergo rigorous validity and accountability. Recent attempts have been made in this regard, but in many cases, more rigorous design and development is needed to better integrate and immerse the teachable moments into the confines of the game’s fantasy structure (Gunter et al, 2008; Kenny & Gunter, 2008). The silver lining is that any success in doing so will breed future successes, and, in effect, change the collective consciousness of teachers with regards to perceived value and expectancy of video games as effective instructional tools. Game playing in America On the other side of this equation are the students who have grown up absorbed in video game culture. Video games constitute a large part of America’s economy and culture. More than 38% of all US households own some type of gaming console such as a Nintendo Wii, Sony Playstation 3 (Sony Corporation 1-7-1 Konan Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-0075, Japan), or Microsoft Xbox 360 (Entertainment Software Association, 2008). In 2007, Americans spent over $18 billion on video games, an increase in sales of 40% over the previous year (The NPD Group, 2008). Statistics also show that approximately 70–80% of Americans aged 16–25 spend between 10 and 16 hours 6 British Journal of Educational Technology © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. each week playing (Dolliver, 2007). Although the hours spent playing games decrease as one enters adulthood, video game usage is still growing amongst adults. A recent poll sponsored by the Associated Press and America On Line revealed that more than 50% of adults in the United States between the ages of 20 and 45 now play video games (Slagle, 2006). The trend towards older people playing games regularly is also growing. In 2005, according to Gamer Magazine, of those who play video games regularly, only a quarter was made up of individuals who were 40 years old and over, which is a range closer to the average age of today’s tenured teachers (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005). But by the beginning of 2008, the average purchaser of video games was 39 years old and close to 25% of them were over the age of 50 (Entertainment Software Association, 2008). These same reports reveal that time spent per week by men and women was approximately equal (7.6 vs. 7.4 hours respectively). Teachers, on the other hand, seem to be bucking these trends. As noted previously, there exists some evidence, although anecdotal, that a particularly disproportionate percentage of preservice teachers on one college campus (ie, undergraduates in their 20s) may not play regularly (Shaffer et al, 2005). These low numbers caused us to wonder if this phenomenon is generalisable, and if so, why? Without conducting a study, one can only guess. Perhaps the answer lies in the fact that games have gotten progressively more complex and difficult to play. Or that games take up too much time for these busy people to devote full concentration to. More importantly, perhaps these individuals do not find any point to learning something that goes against established teaching conventions. Finding the answers to these questions allows those responsible for teacher-training programmes to effect positive changes on the potential learning outcomes that result from integrating video games into a curriculum. The development of the Wii console We believe that the complexities associated with learning how to play games using traditional consoles might have been contributing to the lack of playing time on the part of teachers. We wondered if recent advances in console technology might make a difference, especially in light of the fact that console production companies have been advertising that this new technology would make game playing less intimidating for the novice (Miyamoto, 2007). The new console design approach is best embodied by the Nintendo Wii, a gaming platform that debuted to great success in the holiday season of 2006. A long line of research establishes that video games have potential as beneficial activities for nonplayers, especially older adults and those in need of rehabilitation and occupational therapy (Goldstein et al, 1997; Hollander & Plummer, 1986; Schueren, 1986). Studies using modern consoles are only beginning to emerge with claims of the newer consoles in conjunction with custom developed games improving memory and attention (Miller, 2005). A question remains as to what effect these newer consoles might have on attracting the nonplaying average teacher. In spite of claims of being easier to use than the traditional console, the Wii has its detractors. The Wii is certainly simpler than competitors’ game consoles like the Xbox Expectancy-value 7 © 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2009 Becta. or Playstation, but we suggest that it is still fairly complex for a novice user. For example, to focus on the Wiimote’s mechanics and design, aside from the directional (‘D’) pad to move the character forward, backward, left, and right, there is also the trigger button (‘B’ button) underneath the remote, required to accomplish certain actions in games (such as releasing the ball in Wii Sports: Bowling). Thus, to expect someone of any age to pick up a Wiimote (Wii remote, ie, Wii game controller) and attempt to learn even a simple game will still take a good amount of time. While it is easy to consider moving forward, jumping, ducking and crawling basic functions, when asked to control those actions with a Wiimote, the process can be intimidating for those not familiar with the game mechanics. If they do not practice the button combinations for a specific game often enough, they may not retain the information. We believe that, in spite of the hype associated with the Wiimote as to its making a difference in novices opting to play, it still needs to be evaluated as to whether it actually would do so. We wanted to find out if one reason for nonplaying on the part of teachers is its perceived learning curve and whether the Wii would make a difference in their decision not to play. As such, this study also included a comparison of participants’ views about the Wii console.